从句到段：段落的展开
基本句法掌握之后，接下来就要训练段落写作，这是因为段落是文章的基本组成部分，要写出好文章，必须在段落写作上多下功夫。
段的基本组成是句子，好的段落应该是该段中所有的句子都围绕着一个主题展开，且句与句之间应该是紧密相连，形成统一的整体即unified1 and coherent。那么怎样将一个段落展开呢？下面介绍英语中几种常用的方法。
(1)时间顺序 按时间顺序写作就是按照事物发展在时间上的正常顺序或先后顺序展开段落。在讲述故事或回忆事件时，先发生的先写，后发生的后写。请看下面的例子：
My heart gave a leap when I heard the announcement that our train would soon arrive at its destination-Beijing. Like other passengers, I began to collect my things and put my mug, towel, atlas2, apples, and other things into my bag. To the tune3 of a beautiful song the train pulled into the station and gently stopped by a platform. I walked out of the train and was carried forward by the stream of people into an underground passage and then into a big hall. As I stepped out of the station, I was dazzled by the bright autumn skies of Beijing. Though I had been on the train for more the thirty hours and spent an sleepless4 night, I didn't feel tired at all, and I believed my days in this glorious city would be as sunny as the skies.
(2)空间顺序 按空间顺序组织材料通常用于描述一个地方、事情或人物外貌等。其文章内容应按照由近及远、由远及近、自下而上、自上而下、按顺时针方向或逆时针方向排列，例如：
In the middle of the rectangular-shaped courtyard stood three magnolia trees(), all in full bloom. A little girl was hoping among them, now gazing at a bud, now collecting fallen petals5. Under one of the trees stood her parents, who, while keeping an eye on her, were examining the snow white blossoms with great interest and admiration6. In front of another tree a young couple, fresh and bright as the flowers, were posing for a picture. At the end of the courtyard a group of youngsters had gathered behind an artist painting a flourishing limb, which looked so charming and real that a boy stooped to sniff7 at a half-open flower. At the opposite end a few elderly men and women stood admiring the leafless flowering trees and the people looking at them.
(3)列举法 通过列举一系列的论据 对主题句中的论点进行广泛、全面的陈述或解释，列举的顺序可按照所列各点的内容的相对重要性、时间、空间来排列，例如：
The Other Side of City Life
In the eyes of many people, city life is attractive with all its advantages and convenience, yet they don't see the other side of the picture. First, with the expansion of the city, housing has become a serious problem for city people. Then, there is the problem of pollution: harmful gases from vehicles and poisonous water from factories pollute our surroundings; noise continually disturbs your peace and rest and drives you mad. Thirdly, modern city life puts a high pressure upon people; you have to hurry to and from work; you have to dodge8 in so as to avoid bumping into the flood of people, bicycles, cars, buses…; all day long you are under great stress. Fourthly, big cities also cause some social problems. Of which high crime rate is the most serious one. People are justifiably9 in fear of becoming victims of burglary, robbery, murder and other crimes at any time. They should find some ways to cope with all these problems.
(4)举例法 在主题句中简要、概括地说明一个段落的主题思想之后，可以用具体的、生动的事例来支撑论证主题，向目标读者展示并使他们具体感受主题句中尚未展开的内容和细节，例如：
This term several useful and interesting courses have been offered. An Introduction to European Culture, for instance, gives us a lot of background knowledge of the history of European philosophy, literature, and arts. From time to time we see slide shows of famous paintings and hear tapes of famous pieces of music, and they make the lectures all the more interesting. American Society and Culture is another course that attracts a large audience. The teacher, who visited the United States not long ago, discusses new trends and changes in American life as well as American history and traditions. We like these and other courses very much, because they help us not only to improve our English but also to broaden our vision.
(5)比较和对比 比较(comparison)主要是指出两个或两个以上不同种类的事物的共同点或相似之处，如人物、地点、事物、思想、观点等。对照(contrast)主要是指出它们的不同点。相同的或类似的特征可以组成比较，不同的特征则可以组成对照。不仅如此，比较和对比常常同时使用，这是因为比较中往往隐含着对比。
比较和对比常有两种形式，即整体比较和对比(block comparison and contrast)与逐项比较(alternating comparison)，例如：
Although Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee were fierce adversaries10 during the Civil War, their lives, both military and nonmilitary, has a great deal in common. Grant descended11 from a family whose members participated in the American Revolution. He received his commission of second lieutenant12 from West Point and served in the Spanish-American War. He was later summoned by President Lincoln to assume command of the Union Forces during the Civil War. After the Civil War, Grant suffered financial problems and was forced to declare bankruptcy13. Lee also descended from a family which engaged in the American Revolution. He, too, received his commission from West Point and later fought in Mexico during the Spanish-American War. His fame as a military strategist during the Civil War, when he was the commander of the Confederate armies, is well known. Although it is not always pointed14 out by historians he, like Grant, had financial difficulties after the civil War and was compelled to declare bankruptcy. By securing a post as president of Washington College, he was able to avoid additional poverty.(整体比较)
The same qualities that make people good houseguests make them good hospital patients. Good houseguests can expect a reasonable amount of service and effort on their behalf, and hospital patients can also. Guests have to adjust to what is for them a change, and certainly hospital patients must do the same. No one appreciates a complaining, unpleasant, unappreciative house guest, and the hospital staff is no exception. Hose guests who expect vast changes to be made for their benefit are not popular for long. Certainly nurses and other personnel with their routines feel the same way about patients in their care. Just as house guests must make adjustments to enjoy their visits, so patients must make adjustments to make their stays reasonably pleasant and satisfying under the circumstances.(逐项比较)
(6)原因和结果 因果分析是常用的拓展段落的方法之一，一定要注意推理的逻辑性因果关系必须表达清楚，不能因果混淆，更不能因果倒置，要避免牵强附会和循环论证。一个原因可能造成一个或多个结果，也可能在一大段文章中涉及到一连串因果关系。一个结果也可能由多种原因所引起，通常先写结果，后写多种原因；但也可先写原因后写结果。另外，如果哟啊强调原因或结果，可用倒装或强调句型加以突出。例如：
The surge of demand for oil will soon begin to send shock waves through the American economy and transportation system. The impact of these tremors15 can already be anticipated: to the consumer they signal the end of a long love affair with the car, and to Detroit they offer an early warning that its 1985 growth aims are dangerously unrealistic. Unless we exercise foresight16 and devise growth-limits policies for the auto17 industry, events will thrust us into a crisis that will lead to a substantial erosion of domestic oil supply as well as the independence it provides us with, and a level of petroleum18 imports that could cost as much as $20 to $30 billion per year. Moreover, we would still be depleting19 our remaining oil reserves at an unacceptable rate, and scrambling20 for petroleum substitutes, with enormous potential damage to the environment.
(7)定义法 有时候为了避免混淆或误解，我们必须对一个词、一条术语或谚语、一个概念通过下定义加以说明、解释。通常有三种方法下定定义：给出同义词、用一个带有定语从句的复合句或用一整段文章，而以第三种方法最为常用。1997年1月份四级考试的作文Practice Makes Perfect就是一篇极为典型的定义型文章。再看下面的例子：
A "liberated21 woman" is simply a woman who controls her own life, rather than allowing it to be controlled by other people, traditions, or expectations. A "liberated woman" can be found pursuing any line of work, including housework, or no work at all. She may or may not be married; she may or may not have born children. She may belong to any race; she may have attained22 any age. She need have only one trait in common with her "liberated sisters": she makes her own choices, whether they be the colors on her walls or the advanced degrees she seeks. She acts of her own volition23, responsible to herself, and not out of fear of what her mother, lover, or neighbor might say.
(8)分类法 所谓"分类"就是根据人物和事物的特征将他们/它们分别归入各自不同的范畴。在写这一类段落时，一定要抓住各个类别的典型特征，不要异类相串，混淆起来。例如：
According to Xiao Li, the fifteen students of his class fall into three groups. Seven of them work hard and study well. They always get good marks in examinations and are often praised by the teachers. Li calls them "good students". The monitor, the secretary of the Youth League branch, and the captain of the class volleyball team, are quick in finding out what their fellow students are interested in or what they should do as a collective. They always organize proper activities at the proper time, so Li calls them "good organizers". Four other students are very kind to their classmates, always ready to lend them a helping24 hand. They help to clean the classroom and the corridor even when they are not on duty. Li says that they are "good fellows". "What about yourself?" someone asks him. "I'm a group by myself-a good observer."
从段到篇：四种体裁
掌握了前面八种段落展开的"天龙八部"，在面对任何级别的英语考试的作文时，相信大家都可以从容落笔，应付如裕。
不过，大家仍然要谋篇布局，从篇章的角度对自己要写的内容作宏观的整体上的把握，这就要求大家区分各种体裁，以采用不同的方法去应对。英语文章的体裁可分为四类，即：
(1)记叙文(narration)
(2)描述文(description)
(3)说明文(exposition)
(4)议论文(argumentation)
和中文无异。限于篇幅，在此就不一一举例详细论述，只说一下写作要领。
先说记叙文。所谓narration就是叙述一件事或一连串事件，像四级曾经考过的A Morning Walk(晨间漫步)即是一例。在写这类作文时，要注意以下几点：首先，在一开始就要设定时间、地点、人物，一定要交代清楚；其次，在讲述发生的事件本身时，要选取一些关键的细节，不要漫无边际或不着边际，而组织那些素材一般采用"时间顺序"亦即先发生的先写，后发生的后写，或用倒叙法，先讲结局，再从头描述经过。另外，要注意人称、时代的一致性。
再看描述型文章。所谓description就是用文字对一个人、一个地方、一件物体或一个场景进行描绘。在描述自己的印象时，一定要尽量选取那些有助于表现人物、场景的典型特征和突出特点，剔除那些枝蔓的零碎的细节。只有这样，才能使所描述的内容呼之欲出、跃然纸上，具有极大的表现力。
再谈谈说明文。这是四级考试中出现最为频繁的体裁，无论是A or B、A and B，还是Why to do、How to do, 或是图表型作文，都可归入此类。如果说描述文主要涉及外表和感受，记叙文主要涉及事件和经历，那么说明文则主要是关于过程和关系。举例来说吧，我们面前有一件物体，如果要对其外观进行描写，我们就要写成描述型的作文，如果要解释它是如何制作的，又是如何使用的，那就必须写成说明文；我们可以讲述一个历史事件，到底发生了什么，何时何地发生，都有谁参与其中，那就是叙述，而要讨论该事件的前因后果，它的本质又是什么，以及在历史长河中的深远意义，那就必须写成说明文。前面所介绍的展开段落的方法，如分类法、定义法、比较和对比、举例法等等，大多数都可用于说明文的写作。
最后谈谈议论文。说明文是一种以阐释和解说为表达方式，用简洁、平实、通俗的语言，对事物的、事理的、人物的特性、情况、背景等所作的解释和介绍的文体，而议论文则是以议论为主要表达方式，以逻辑思维为主要思维方式，对现实生活中的现象和原理说长道短、论是斥非、阐明自己的立场和观点的一种文体，二者不可相混淆。说明是让人明白，而议论则要令人信服。论点要旗帜鲜明，论据要充分有力，论证要符合逻辑。就四级考试而言，真正意义上的议论文并不多见，即便是已经考过的议论文，如幸运数字、英语口试的必要性等，也较易处理，因此不再赘述。
需要强调的是，在四级考试中，往往是在同一篇文章中几种体裁兼而有之，大家不要拘泥于教条，如2003年6月的车祸见证书，记述、描写、说明三种体裁都有所照顾，目的是要检测同学们对于不同类型写作的把握，全面地考察写作教学的水平。
1 unified 40b03ccf3c2da88cc503272d1de3441c
(unify 的过去式和过去分词)； 统一的； 统一标准的； 一元化的
参考例句：
The teacher unified the answer of her pupil with hers. 老师核对了学生的答案。
The First Emperor of Qin unified China in 221 B.C. 秦始皇于公元前221年统一中国。
2 atlas vOCy5
n.地图册，图表集
参考例句：
He reached down the atlas from the top shelf.他从书架顶层取下地图集。
The atlas contains forty maps,including three of Great Britain.这本地图集有40幅地图，其中包括3幅英国地图。
3 tune NmnwW
n.调子；和谐，协调；v.调音，调节，调整
参考例句：
He'd written a tune,and played it to us on the piano.他写了一段曲子，并在钢琴上弹给我们听。
The boy beat out a tune on a tin can.那男孩在易拉罐上敲出一首曲子。
4 sleepless oiBzGN
adj.不睡眠的，睡不著的，不休息的
参考例句：
The situation gave her many sleepless nights.这种情况害她一连好多天睡不好觉。
One evening I heard a tale that rendered me sleepless for nights.一天晚上，我听说了一个传闻，把我搞得一连几夜都不能入睡。
5 petals f346ae24f5b5778ae3e2317a33cd8d9b
n.花瓣( petal的名词复数 )
参考例句：
white petals tinged with blue 略带蓝色的白花瓣
The petals of many flowers expand in the sunshine. 许多花瓣在阳光下开放。 来自《现代英汉综合大词典》
6 admiration afpyA
n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕
参考例句：
He was lost in admiration of the beauty of the scene.他对风景之美赞不绝口。
We have a great admiration for the gold medalists.我们对金牌获得者极为敬佩。
7 sniff PF7zs
vi.嗅…味道；抽鼻涕；对嗤之以鼻，蔑视
参考例句：
The police used dogs to sniff out the criminals in their hiding - place.警察使用警犬查出了罪犯的藏身地点。
When Munchie meets a dog on the beach, they sniff each other for a while.当麦奇在海滩上碰到另一条狗的时候，他们会彼此嗅一会儿。
8 dodge q83yo
v.闪开，躲开，避开；n.妙计，诡计
参考例句：
A dodge behind a tree kept her from being run over.她向树后一闪，才没被车从身上辗过。
The dodge was coopered by the police.诡计被警察粉碎了。
9 justifiably ap9zrc
adv.无可非议地
参考例句：
There General Walters would come aboard to greet me, justifiably beaming with pride at his arrangement. 在那儿沃尔特斯将军会登上飞机来接我，理所当然为他们的安排感到洋洋得意。 来自辞典例句
The Chinese seemed justifiably proud of their economic achievements. 中国人似乎为他们的经济成就感到自豪，这是无可非议的。 来自互联网
10 adversaries 5e3df56a80cf841a3387bd9fd1360a22
n.对手，敌手( adversary的名词复数 )
参考例句：
That would cause potential adversaries to recoil from a challenge. 这会迫使潜在的敌人在挑战面前退缩。 来自辞典例句
Every adversaries are more comfortable with a predictable, coherent America. 就连敌人也会因有可以预料的，始终一致的美国而感到舒服得多。 来自辞典例句
11 descended guQzoy
a.为...后裔的，出身于...的
参考例句：
A mood of melancholy descended on us. 一种悲伤的情绪袭上我们的心头。
The path descended the hill in a series of zigzags. 小路呈连续的之字形顺着山坡蜿蜒而下。
12 lieutenant X3GyG
n.陆军中尉，海军上尉；代理官员，副职官员
参考例句：
He was promoted to be a lieutenant in the army.他被提升为陆军中尉。
He prevailed on the lieutenant to send in a short note.他说动那个副官，递上了一张简短的便条进去。
13 bankruptcy fPoyJ
n.破产；无偿付能力
参考例句：
You will have to pull in if you want to escape bankruptcy.如果你想避免破产，就必须节省开支。
His firm is just on thin ice of bankruptcy.他的商号正面临破产的危险。
14 pointed Il8zB4
adj.尖的，直截了当的
参考例句：
He gave me a very sharp pointed pencil.他给我一支削得非常尖的铅笔。
She wished to show Mrs.John Dashwood by this pointed invitation to her brother.她想通过对达茨伍德夫人提出直截了当的邀请向她的哥哥表示出来。
15 tremors 266b933e7f9df8a51b0b0795733d1e93
震颤( tremor的名词复数 )； 战栗； 震颤声； 大地的轻微震动
参考例句：
The story was so terrible that It'sent tremors down my spine. 这故事太可怕，它使我不寒而栗。
The story was so terrible that it sent tremors down my spine. 这故事太可怕，它使我不寒而栗。
16 foresight Wi3xm
n.先见之明，深谋远虑
参考例句：
The failure is the result of our lack of foresight.这次失败是由于我们缺乏远虑而造成的。
It required a statesman's foresight and sagacity to make the decision.作出这个决定需要政治家的远见卓识。
17 auto ZOnyW
n.(=automobile)(口语)汽车
参考例句：
Don't park your auto here.别把你的汽车停在这儿。
The auto industry has brought many people to Detroit.汽车工业把许多人吸引到了底特律。
18 petroleum WiUyi
n.原油，石油
参考例句：
The Government of Iran advanced the price of petroleum last week.上星期伊朗政府提高了石油价格。
The purpose of oil refinery is to refine crude petroleum.炼油厂的主要工作是提炼原油。
19 depleting ae23633b1a5c6c21ae0d93b205d84331
使大大的减少，使空虚( deplete的现在分词 )； 耗尽，使枯竭
参考例句：
Regulations are outlawing certain refrigerants, such as chlorofluorocarbons, which contain ozone-depleting chemicals. 随后出台的政策禁用了部分制冷剂，如破坏臭氧层的氟氯碳化合物。
Aging, being a series of continual losses, can be keenly depleting. 老龄化，作为一个系列的连续亏损，可以清楚地消耗。
20 scrambling cfea7454c3a8813b07de2178a1025138
v.快速爬行( scramble的现在分词 )；攀登；争夺；（军事飞机）紧急起飞
参考例句：
Scrambling up her hair, she darted out of the house. 她匆忙扎起头发，冲出房去。 来自《现代英汉综合大词典》
She is scrambling eggs. 她正在炒蛋。 来自《简明英汉词典》
21 liberated YpRzMi
a.无拘束的，放纵的
参考例句：
The city was liberated by the advancing army. 军队向前挺进，解放了那座城市。
The heat brings about a chemical reaction, and oxygen is liberated. 热量引起化学反应，释放出氧气。
22 attained 1f2c1bee274e81555decf78fe9b16b2f
（通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况）
参考例句：
She has attained the degree of Master of Arts. 她已获得文学硕士学位。
Lu Hsun attained a high position in the republic of letters. 鲁迅在文坛上获得崇高的地位。
23 volition cLkzS
n.意志；决意
参考例句：
We like to think that everything we do and everything we think is a product of our volition.我们常常认为我们所做和所想的一切都出自自己的意愿。
Makin said Mr Coombes had gone to the police of his own volition.梅金说库姆斯先生是主动去投案的。
24 helping 2rGzDc
n.食物的一份&adj.帮助人的，辅助的
参考例句：
The poor children regularly pony up for a second helping of my hamburger. 那些可怜的孩子们总是要求我把我的汉堡包再给他们一份。
By doing this, they may at times be helping to restore competition. 这样一来, 他在某些时候,有助于竞争的加强。
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